Gandhara was the name given to the land and its associated civilization
that existed in what is now northern Pakistan and Afghanistan from the
mid 1st millenium BCE to the beginning of the 2nd millenium CE and
consisted of multiple dynasties which ruled over the same area but which
were linked by their adoption of Buddhism as a religion for the most part and also of the Indo-Greek artistic tradition as its cultural identity.
The Extent of Gandhara
Although Gandhara has been historically known since the Achaemenian Empire and more specifically during the reign of Cyrus the Great (558-28 BCE), it wasn't until the pilgrimage of XuanXang in the 7th century CE, at the tail end of the Gandhara civilization, that
we first see a descriptive account of the region down to the extent of
the area itself as well as the various places and sites which can be
identified today.
It has been speculated that Ganhara was a
triangular tract of land about 100 kilometers east to west and 70 km
north to south, lying mainly to the west of the Indus River and bounded
on the north by the Hindukush Mountains. (1 li = 500 meters or 1640
feet)
The extent of Gandhara proper actually included the Peshawar
valley, the hills of Swat, Dir, Buner and Bajaur, all of which lie
within the northern bounds of the modern day nation of Pakistan. However
the bounds of Greater Gandhara (or regions where the cultural and
political hegemony of Gandhara held sway) extended towards the Kabul
Valley in Afghanistan and the Potwar plateau in the province of Punjab
in Pakistan, in close proximity to the capital city of Islamabad, and bounded off by the location of the grand Mankiyala Stupa on the outskirts of the capital.
Map of Gandhara
Origin of the Name Gandhara
The name of Gandhara may have several meanings the most prominent theory relates its name to the word
Qand/Gand which means "fragrance" and
Har
which means 'lands' hence the simplest definition being 'Land of
Fragrance'. However, when analysed critically, the region known as the
core of Gandhara around the Peshawar valley does not historically have
any historically verifiable association or importance with regards to
fragrance, either through flowers, spices, foods etc.
Another more probable and geographically supported theory is that the word
Qand/Gand is evolved from
Kun which means 'well' or 'pool of water' and indeed the word
Gand appears with many other place names associated with water i.e.
Gand-ao or
Gand-ab (pool of water) and also
Gand-Dheri (water mound).
Tashkand (stone walled pool) and
Yarkand
are also associated names and hence it holds to reason that the land
could have been known as 'Land of the Lake(s)' as this signifies the
region between the Indus and Kabul rivers which was a fertile region
rich in water supplies and especially around Peshawar.
political History of Gandhara
Gandhara witnessed the rule of several major powers of antiquity as listed here:
- Achaemenids (~600-400 BCE)
- Greeks (~326-324 BCE),
- Mauryans (~324-185 BCE),
- Indo-Greeks (~250-190 BCE),
- Scythians (~2nd century to 1st century BCE),
- Parthians (~1st century BC to 1st century CE),
- Kushans (~1st to 5th century CE),
- White Huns (~5th century CE)
- Hindu Shahi (~9th to 10th century CE).
This was followed by Muslim conquests by which time we come to the medieval period of Indian History.
Achaemenids & alexander
Darius I added Gandhara to the Achaemenid Empire
around 556 BCE but his occupation of it did not last long. Later on it
was instead known to be a tributary state of the Achaemenids (known as a
satrapy) and later paid tributes and inferred hospitality to Alexander the Great
who eventually conquered it (along with the rest of the Achaemenian
empire).The Achaemenian hegemony in Gandhara lasted from the 6th century
BCE to 327 BCE.
Alexander is said to have crossed through the
area of what is called Gandhara to enter into Punjab proper (as indeed
this region is still used today for the same function) and he was
offered alliance by the ruler of Taxila
Ombhi, against the king Porus, who was a constant source of agitation
for Taxila and its surrounding regions. What happened after this at the Battle
of Hydaspes is (quite literally) ancient history. Nonetheless,
Alexander's stay here was short and he went south via the Indus River
and crossed over into what is today Balochistan on the return journey.
Alexander
left sizeable populations of Greeks in every region he conquered and
Gandhara was no exception, with craftsmen, soldiers and other followers
encouraged to inter-marry and blend with the locals and bring to them
the fruits of Greek
civilization. When Alexander died in June 323 BCE, his occupying Greek
force, desperate to return home, started the journey back regardless of
the orders to stay in the region and this left a large vaccuum in the
already thinly spread Greek occupation force in Gandhara. Nonetheless,
enough Greek centers were created in the region to affect its history
for centuries to come.
mauryan rule
By 316 BCE, King Chandragupta of Magadha (321-297 BCE) moved in and conquered the Indus Valley,
thereby annexing Gandhara and naming Taxila a provincial capital of his
newly formed Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son
Bindusara, who was succeeded by his son Ashoka
(who had previously remained a governor of Taxila for some time).
Ashoka famously propagated the spread of Buddhism, and created a grand
monastery to the east of the river Tamra at Taxila. This is the
Dharmarajika Monastery, famous for its stupa, and it is said Ashoka
buried several relics of Buddha there. However the Mauryan empire disintegrated after Ashoka's death and Gandhara was again up for grabs.
Maruyan Empire
indo greeks
In 184 BCE, the Greeks (who had remained strong in Bactria,
modern North Afghanistan), invaded Gandhara again under king Demetrius
and it was he who built a new city on the opposite bank of the river
from Bhir Mound. This new incarnation of Taxila is known now as Sirkap
(meaning 'severed head') and it was built according to the Hippodamaean
plan following a gridiron pattern.
The Kingdom of Demetrius consisted of Gandhara, Arachosia (modern day Kandahar in Afghanistan), the Punjab, and a part of the Ganges
Valley. It was a multi-ethnic society, where Greeks, Indians, Bactrians
and Western Iranians lived together. Evidence of this is found all over
2nd century BCE Taxila, such as a Zoroastrian sanctuary at Jandial,
directly north of Sirkap.
Graeco-Bactrian Empire
scytho-parthians
The
gradual takeover of the Punjab by the nomadic Scythians of Central Asia
began around 110 BCE. These tribes had been accustomed to invading
northern territories such as those in Bactia, but had been kept back by
the Achaemenids in the past. They had settled in Drangiana, modern day
Sistan in Iran and invaded Punjab, infiltrating through the southern
Indus Valley, eventually taking over Taxila.
In the first quarter
of the 1st century CE, the Parthians moved in and began taking over the
Greek Petty Kingdoms in Gandhara and Punjab. Gondophares, a Parthian
leader who lived at Taxila is said to have been baptised by the apostle
Thomas, not a wholly impossible claim since the city already hosted a
number of religious faiths and might have accomodated a fledgling
Christian one.
kushans
In 80 CE, the Kushans wrested
control of Gandhara from the Scytho-Parthians. The main city at Taxila
was again refounded at another site and the new name Sirsukh given to
it. It resembled a large military base, with a wall 5 km long and no less than 6 metres thick. It now became a hub of Buddhist activity, and hosted pilgrims from Central Asia and China.
The Kushana era is the high point of Gandhara art, architecture and
culture and considered a golden age in the history of this region. The
Kushans were a tribe that migrated to Gandhara around the 1st century CE
from Central Asia and Afghanistan. The tribe selected Peshawar as its
seat of power and later expanded east into the heartland of India to establish the Kushan Empire, which lasted until the 3rd century CE.
Kushan Empire & Neighboring States
The Greek philosopher Appolonius of Tyana also visited the city of Taxila and compared its size to that of Nineveh in Assyria. A description of Taxila (probably Sirsukh) can be found in the Life of Appolonius of Tyana by the author Philostratus:
I have already described the way in which the city is walled, but
they say that it was divided up into narrow streets in the same
irregular manner as in Athens,
and that the houses were built in such a way that if you look at them
from outside they had only one storey, while if you went into one of
them, you at once found subterranean chambers extending as far below the
level of the earth as did the chambers above. (Philostratus, Life of Apollonius, 2.23; tr. F.C. Conybeare)
The tail end of the Kushan rule saw a succession of
short lived dynasties taking over control of the Gandhara region, and
this resulted in a situation where the region was constantly being
raided, invaded or in some way or other in turmoil. Quick succession of
rule by the Sassanids, Kidarites (or little Kushans) and finally the
White Huns following the ebbing of Kushan rule led to day to day religious, trade and social activity coming to a standstill. In about 241 CE, the Kushans were defeated by the Sassanians of Persia
under the kingship of Shahpur 1 and Gandhara became annexed to the
Persian Empire. However, the Sassanians could not directly rule the
region due to being taxed on their western and northern borders and
control of this region fell to descendants of the previous Kushans who
came to be known as the Kidarites or Kidar Kushans which literally means
little Kushans.
White Huns
The Kidarites managed to
maintain a hold of the region, carrying on the traditions of their
predecessors the Kushans up to the middle of the 5th Cent CE when the
White Huns or Hephthalites, invaded the region. As Buddhism and by
extension the Gandhara culture was already at an ebb by this time, the
invasion caused both physical destruction and, due to the Huns' adoption
of the Shivite faith (most especially of their ruler Mihirakula) and by
extension the culture of the Hindu Gupta empire which at this time was ascendant, the importance of Buddhism began to wane with even more speed.
During the White Hun invasions, the religious character of the region shifted gradually towards Hinduism
and Buddhism was shunned in the favor of Hinduism as it was deemed
politically expedient by the White Hun rulers since they sought to make
alliances with the Hindu Gupta
Empire against the Sassanids to the West. The change in religious
character (which was the basis of all social life) led to a decline in
the prosperity of the Gandhara region as a whole.
The White Huns'
alliance with the Gupta empire against the Sassanians also caused the
culture of Buddhism to be subdued to the extent that eventually the
religion moved north up through the northern passes into China and
beyond. Hinduism hence took sway over the region and the people moved
away from here, as the remaining few centuries saw constant invasions
from the west, especially Muslim conquest, which allowed no prominent culture to develop or be sustained along the ancient lines. The old cities
and worship places of importance hence fell out of memory for the next
1500 years until they were rediscovered in the mid 1800's CE by colonial
British forces.
White Hun (Huna) Empire
Gandhara,
then, has had multiple rulers over the centuries but archaeological
evidence shows us the uniformity of its cultural tradition persisted
during these changes in rule. Although the territories were spread over
vast areas, the cultural boundaries of regions such as Mathura and
Gandhara were well defined and allow us to identify it uniquely today.
Gandharan Art
The
beginnings of Gandharan artistic tradition can be traced to the 1st
century BCE with the waning of the tradition occuring approximately in
the 8th century CE and included painting, sculpture, coins,
pottery
and all the associated elements of an artistic tradition. It really
took flight during the Kushan era and especially that of the King
Kanishka during the 1st Century CE who deified the Buddha and arguably
for the first time introduced the Buddha image which went on to become
so prolific as to define the entire Gandharan culture. Thousands of
these images were produced and were scattered across every nook and
cranny of the region ranging from minute hand held buddhas to giant
monumental statues put in place in the most sacred worship sites.
Indeed it was during Kanishka's time that Buddhism saw its second revival after
Asoka.
The life story of the Buddha became the staple subject matter for any
and all aspects of Gandharan art, and the sheer number of Buddha images
ensrhined in chapels, stupas and monasteries continue to be found in
great number to this day. The artwork was solely dedicated to the
propagation of religious ideals to the extent that even items of
everyday use were replete with religious imagery. The focus was on the
life story of the Buddha and each piece of sculpture has something to
say about the life of this personage.
The materials used were
either kanjur stone finished with plaster and paint or Schist stone.
Kanjur is basically fossilized rock which can be easily molded into
shapes which are used as a base for various decorative elements in
Gandharan art such as pilasters, Buddha figures, brackets and other
elements. After the basic shape has been cut out of stone, this is then
plastered with lime plaster to give it a finished look.
Gold
leaf and precious gems were also applied to select items of great
performance and the quality of the artwork varied depending on its
use. The maximum size that the schist stone was able to be crafted into
was 2.5m square in order to have it be easily transported and hence the
larger statues and reliefs are made of clay and stucco.
The
Buddha was worshipped through these sculptural representations which
had a distinct style associated with them that remained largely constant
with some changes owing to skill or craft being seen. The Buddha is
always depicted in simple monastic robes, with his hair tied in a bun
known as the Ushnisha and the expression on his face is almost always
one of content. Whereas originally these sculptures were painted in
bright colors, now only the plaster or stone remains and barely a
handful of items have been found with their original colors intact.
Various cult images of the Buddha were made for the varying cults in the
region all of which had their own distinct identifying features namely
the Laksanas (divine marks), Mudras (hand gestures) and various kinds of
robes.
Whatever the case was, Buddha always had the central role
in these pieces and can be immediately identified by the halo and his
simple attire. Many mythological figures are also seen as a part of
these scenes along with couples, gods, demigods, celestials, princes,
queens, male guards, female guards, musicians, royal chaplains, soldiers
and also common people. More so, Gandharan art recreates these scenes
in such detail that architectural elements and items of everyday use
such as beds and vases etc. can be clearly seen in them and also give a
glimpse into the building culture of antiquity. Gandharan art can thus
provide us with an insight not only one aspect of the ancient life of
the region but also of the entirety of the ancient buddhist daily life.
One
of the most enduring elements of Gandharan art besides the Buddha is
the Bodhisattva, which is essentially the state of the Buddha before he
attained his enlightenment. Multiple Bodhisattvas from the various
previous lives of the Buddha are depicted in Gandharan art with
Avalokatishvara, Matrya, Padmapani and Manjsuri being prominent.
Compared to the austerity of the Buddha images, the Bodhisattva
sculptures and images depict a high degree of luxury with many
variations on the various elements such as jewelry, headdress,
loincloth, sandals and so on and the various incarnations of the
Bodhisattva are recognisable from their clothing and postures, mostly of
the hands in the seven mudras.
Gandharan Architecture
Much
can be said about the architectural tradition of Gandhara but the most
prominent and unique characteristic of it was the proliferation of
stupas and other associated religious establishments such as monasteries
which formed the core of the regional identity for nearly 1000 years.
The
Stupas were built mainly for the reverence of the remains of Buddhist
masters and the most important ones held the remains of the Buddha
himself. Besides the Buddha, monks of high stature were also venerated
by having stupas built for them and these edifices also marked the
places where certain legendary events related to the various lives of
the Buddha were said to have occured. The proliferation of stupas across
India is said to have been the hallmark of Asoka's rule who reinterred
the ashes of the Buddha in multiple stupas all across his kingdom.
Even
though it was mainly an architectural feat, the stupa nonetheless was a
vessel for the display and worship of the prolific Gandharan art,
encompassing sculptures, reliefs, paintings and other highly decorated
elements that encased the structure and added immensely to not just its
beauty but its veneration as a religious site. These images stood
against walls, in courts, inside niches and chapels and stuccos adorned
the walls of the stupa courts and monasteries.
Stupas were
initially built with circular bases and were of modest size, but as the
cult of the Buddha grew in importance in the region, these centers of
worship were elaborately designed and adorned to boost the stature of
the religion and to attract more worshippers. The original stupas at
Kunala and Dharmarajika were small affairs which were later on expanded
to grand proportions by rulers such as Asoka and Kanishka.
A base
(medhi), either circular or square, would support a drum or cylinder on top of which the dome (
anda)
would be placed. Steps were used to surmount the platform and to begin
the clockwise circumbobulation around the dome along the processional
path (
Pradakshina Patha) which was bounded by the railing (
vedika).
At times the base would have multiple circular stories raising the
height of the stupa. The corners of the base were usually affixed with
lion capital pillars and the top of the dome had first a
harmika, an inverted square enclosure on which stood the
yasti or pillar which had the various
chattras or parasols diminishing sizes equally distributed along it.
The
stupas came to represent the zenith of buddhist architectural
achievement in the region and of course, as with the artwork, they are
also meant solely to promote the religious power structures. The stupas
themselves were decorated with uncountable relief panels and friezes
depicting religious stories and events further solidifying their role.
The
stupa was the main center of worship and in support it had the
monastery, a structure with its own fully contained living area for
monks. The monastery or Sangharama became a huge part of the Buddhist
tradition and over time came to be its own self-sustaining unit, with
lands for growing crops and wealth showered on them by lay people and
royalty alike for their blessings. In its final form the monastery had
some defined elements which suited its basic functions and these were:
- Refrectory/Service Hall: Upatthana-sala
- Kitchen: Aggi-sala
- Cloistered Promenade: Chankamana-sala (for walking/exercise)
- Bathroom: Jantaghara next to the central water tank
- Store room: Kotthaka
- Medical and general storage: Kappiya-kuti
These buildings were usually rendered in mud plaster and this
was then painted over either completely or like in some cases (as in the
monastery of Jina Wali Dheri in Taxila) scenes of buddha's life.
Buddhist Monastery Plan (Gandharan)
Aside
from these religious buildings there was of course civic architecture
as well which varied and changed with respect to the cultural prevalent
in the region. Cities ranged from freely-planned organic settlements
such as Bhir to the more rigid and planned out settlements like Sirsukh,
with the city of Sirkap somewhere in between in terms of planning and
layout.
The older cities tend to be more organically laid out
while the newer ones seem to be very directly inspired by the Greek
Hippodamian plan which surfaces later on in the 1st cent BCE. Shops,
promenades, palaces, temples, sundials, hovels, huts, villas, insulae,
pavillions, streets, roads, watchtowers, gates and fortification walls,
all form part of the urban fabric which is true of most ancient cities
as well.
Although the religious landscape was dominated by the
Buddhist faith, there has is nonetheless ample evidence of other faiths
intermingling and thriving in the social fabric such as Jainism, Zoroastrianism and early Hinduism amongst the various other cults. The temple at Jandial is said to be Zoroastrian in nature whereas a Jain temple and a temple of the Sun is in evidence on the main street of Sirkap city along with various stupas.
One
of the most well known remains is the Double Headed Eagle stupa in
Sirkap which contains its namesake motif of the double-headed eagle
affixed on three different type of decorative arches namely the
classical greek, persian and indian style of arch. This shows the degree
of intermixing of cultures in the region which we can deduce from the
archaeological remains.
Conclusion
As
we can see, daily life in the cities of Gandhara was very diverse and
due to its location at a crossroads near to the Indus River, it
constantly saw invaders, traders, pilgrims, monks and every other type
of traveller cross through its lands. Westwards from India or Eastwards
from Persia, the route through the region of Gandhara made it the center
of every traveller's route. This is the same route through which Islam
entered the region and probably struck the final nail in the coffin of
Buddhism in the area. In fact the same route would be used for centuries
even after Gandhara collapsed until the coming of the voyages of
discovery and the prominence of naval travel via sea routes.
The
riches of Gandhara, although well known to treasure hunters for
centuries, would not be discovered again for over 2000 years until the
era of British Colonial rule in the Indian Subcontinent, where the
artistic traditions of this lost civilization were rediscovered and
consequently researched and bought to light in the late 19th and
throughout the 20th centuries CE, the study of which continues to this
day.
